ULTRASOUND CONTRAST AGENTS IN THE ABDOMEN Ultrasound contrast media have been well established for cardiac imaging since the 19

Abdomina Trauma Diagnostic Radiology

ABDOMINAL TRAUMA Blunt or penetrating trauma to the torso, frequently due to a road traffic accident (RTA) or other forms of

Abdominal Aorta Aortic Aneurysm

THE ABDOMINAL AORTA The abdominal aorta can be visualized proximally in the midline, posterior to the left lobe of the liver.

Abdominal Diagnostic Ultrasound Scan

Abdominal ultrasound (abdominal diagnostic ultrasound scan) Definition Abdominal ultrasound uses high frequency sound wave

Abdominal Ultrasound Image Optimization

abdominal ultrasound image optimization : Misinterpretation of ultrasound images is a significant risk in ultrasound diagnosis.

Acute Abdomen Radiological Imaging

acute abdomen radiological imaging : Ultrasound has an increasingly important role in the initial evaluation of the acute abdome

Acute Cholecystitis Chronic Cholecystitis

INFLAMMATORY GALLBLADDER DISEASE Cholecystitis is usually associated with gallstones; the frictional action of stones on the

Acute Pancreatitis Ultrasound

Acute pancreatitis - clinical features Acute inflammation of the pancreas has a number of possible causes, but is most commonly

Adrenal Glands Diagnostic Imaging

ADRENAL GLANDS Normal appearances In utero and postnatally, the adrenal glands are large, about one-third the size of the ki

Adrenal Glands Pathology Scanning

THE ADRENAL GLANDS Normal appearances The normal adrenal glands can be seen on ultrasound in the vast majority of patients

Appendicitis Ultrasound Diagnosis

Appendicitis Ultrasound is the first line of investigation for the child presenting with acute abdominal pain, where the diag

Appendix Acute Appendicitis

Appendix Acute appendicitis is a common diagnosis on admission to the casualty department with right lower abdominal pain. Ho

Benign Focal Renal Tumors

BENIGN FOCAL RENAL TUMOURS - Angiomyolipoma This is a homogeneous, highly echogenic, usually rounded lesion in the renal pare

Bile Ducts Diagnostic Ultrasound

BILE DUCTS ULTRASOUND The common duct can be easily demonstrated in its intrahepatic portion just anterior and slightly to the

Biliary Stasis Haemobilia Pneumobilia

ECHOGENIC BILE Biliary stasis Fine echoes in the bile within the gallbladder are not uncommon on an ultrasound scan. This

Budd–Chiari Syndrome Diagnosis

Budd–Chiari syndrome (BCS) Budd–Chiari syndrome is the name given to the symptoms associated with partial or comple

Carolis Disease Clinical Radiology

Carolis disease (congenital intrahepatic biliary dilatation) This is a rare, congenital condition in which the bile ducts are i

Cholangiocarcinoma Imaging Management

Cholangiocarcinoma This is a malignant lesion arising in the wall of the bile duct. It is obviously easier to recognize from

Choledochal Cysts Cholangitis

Choledochal cysts : Most commonly found in children, this is associated with biliary atresia, in which the distal ‘blin

Choledochal Cysts Radiology

Choledochal cyst Choledochal cysts are congenital dilations of the biliary tree that may present at any age, and can be diagnos

Choledocholithiasis Gallstones

Choledocholithiasis : Stones may pass from the gallbladder into the common duct, or may develop de novo within the common duct. St

Cholelithiasis Ultrasound Imaging

CHOLELITHIASIS The most commonly and reliably identified gallbladder pathology is that of gallstones. More than 10% of the popu

Chronic Pancreatitis Ultrasound

Chronic pancreatitis Patients with acute pancreatitis are at risk of repeated inflammatory episodes which eventually develop in

Cystic Fibrosis Diagnosis

Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a common, autosomal recessive multisystem disease. The main organs affected are the lungs, liver and pancr

Cystic Fibrosis Ultrasound Imaging

Cystic fibrosis, one of the most common chromosomal abnormalities, has historically been associated with the paediatric population

Diffuse Rena Disease Renal Failure

DIFFUSE RENAL DISEASE AND RENAL FAILURE Most diffuse medical renal conditions have non-specific appearances on ultrasound, th

Endoscopic Ultrasound Imaging

endoscopic ultrasound imaging : Some of the limitations of conventional ultrasonography in biliary and pancreatic imaging can

Fatty Liver Disease Imaging

Focal fatty change - Focal fatty infiltration - fatty liver disease imaging Fatty infiltration of the liver is a common occurre

Focal Nodular Hyperplasia Granulomata

Focal nodular hyperplasia This is a benign tumour made up of a proliferation of liver cells with hepatocytes, Kupffer cells a

Gallbladder Ultrasound Scanning

THE GALLBLADDER ULTRASOUND The normal gallbladder is best visualized after fasting, to distend it. It should have a hyperechoic

Gastrointestinal Diagnostic Radiology

GASTROINTESTINAL (GI) TRACT Contrast radiographic investigations, including CT, are generally accepted as the methods of choi

Gastrointestinal Emergencies Imaging

GASTROINTESTINAL EMERGENCIES Appendicitis, and its possible complications, is one of the most common reasons for referral. Ultr

Haemangioendothelioma Scanning

Haemangioendothelioma Vascular tumours account for most benign liver tumours in childhood, with haemangioendotheliomas being se

Hepatic Abscesses Ultrasound

Abscesses - Clinical features of an abscess Patients present with fever, often accompanied by right upper quadrant (RUQ) pain a

Hepatic Adenoma Hepatic Calcification

Adenoma The hepatic adenoma is a benign focal lesion consisting of a cluster of atypical liver cells. Within this, there may

Hepatitis Diagnosis Diagnostic Radiology

Hepatitis - Viral hepatitis Acute viral hepatitis may be caused by one of several viruses: A, B, C, D or E. The viruses which c

Hepatobiliary Emergencies Ultrasound

HEPATOBILIARY EMERGENCIES Ultrasound scanning is invariably the first-line investigation for suspected biliary tract emergenc

Hepatobiliary Ultrasound Referral Patterns

REFERRAL PATTERNS FOR HEPATOBILIARY ULTRASOUND There is an almost infinite number of reasons for performing abdominal ultraso

Hepatoblastoma Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Hepatoblastoma and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) Primary malignant tumours of the liver are comparatively rare in children and

Hepatocellular Carcinoma Imaging

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) This primary carcinoma of the liver is more common in Africa and the Far East than in the UK.

Hyperplastic Gallbladder Wall Imaging

HYPERPLASTIC CONDITIONS OF THE GALLBLADDER WALL Adenomyomatosis This is a non-inflammatory, hyperplastic condition which c

Hypertrophic Pyloric Stenosis

Hypertrophic pyloric stenosis (HPS) HPS is a condition occurring in newborn infants commonly about 6 weeks of age when the pylo

Imaging Of Malignant Renal Masses

MALIGNANT RENAL TRACT MASSES Imaging of malignant renal masses Ultrasound, as one of the first-line investigations in pati

Inferior Vena Cava Ultrasound

THE INFERIOR VENA CAVA (IVC) Ultrasound is highly successful in demonstrating the proximal IVC, by using the liver as an acou

Inflammatory Bowel Conditions

Inflammatory bowel conditions Both barium studies and ultrasound have a useful role to play in the management of patients with

Intraoperative Ultrasound Imaging

INTRAOPERATIVE ULTRASOUND (IOUS) IOUS is increasingly used in the abdomen, in both the diagnosis and treatment of lesions. It

Intussusception Enteric Duplication Cysts

Intussusception Intussusception is the invagination of a segment of bowel into the lumen of the adjacent bowel. It is a common

Kidney Biopsy Renal Transplant Biopsy

Native kidney biopsy Histology is frequently required in order to direct further management of diffuse renal disease. Biopsy of

Laparoscopic Ultrasound Imaging

LAPAROSCOPIC ULTRASOUND Dedicated laparoscopic ultrasound probes may be passed through the laparoscopic port during surgical pr

Liver Cirrhosis Biliary Cirrhosis

Cirrhosis is a process associated with end-stage chronic liver disease and is not really a disease in itself. It can result from

Liver Conditions In Pregnancy

Liver conditions in pregnancy - Acute fatty liver This rare condition occurs in the third trimester of pregnancy. Acute fatty

Liver Cysts Hydatid Echinococcal Cyst

BENIGN FOCAL LIVER LESIONS Simple cysts One of the most frequently seen liver lesions, the simple cyst, is either congenit

Liver Haematoma Haemangioma

Haematoma The liver haematoma may have similar acoustic appearances to those of an abscess, but does not share the same clinica

Liver Transplantation

LIVER TRANSPLANTS - Indications for transplant Liver transplantation has now become a successful treatment for many chronic l

Liver Transplantation Postoperative

liver transplantation postoperative assessment Ultrasound plays a key role in the postoperative monitoring of liver transplant

Liver Ultrasound Hepatic Vasculature

liver ultrasound - hepatic vasculature The portal veins radiate from the porta hepatis, where the main portal vein (MPV) ente

Liver Ultrasound Normal Appearance

The liver ultrasound - normal appearance The liver is a homogeneous, mid-grey organ on ultrasound. It has the same, or slightly

Lymphomas Ultrasound Management

Lymphoma is the most common malignant disease affecting the spleen. Lymphomas comprise a number of diseases, all malignant, whic

Magnetic Resonance Imaging Mri

Magnetic resonance imaging Definition Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a unique and versatile medical imaging diagnosti

Magnetic Resonance Imaging Procedure

magnetic resonance imaging procedure Regardless of the type of MRI planned, or area of the body targeted, the procedure involv

Malignant Focal Liver Lesions

MALIGNANT FOCAL LIVER LESIONS - The ‘mass effect’ This term describes the effect of a focal mass, whether benign or

Mammography Mammogram

Mammography Definition Mammography is the study of the breast using x rays. The actual test is called a mammogram. It is a

Mesenteric Ischaemia Ultrasound Signs

Mesenteric ischaemia is a potentially lethal condition, associated with atherosclerosis of the mesenteric vessels, which can cause

Midgut Volvulus Malrotation

Midgut volvulus Malrotation of the midgut occurs as a result of failure of normal rotation of the small bowel during intraute

Mirizzi Syndrome Gallbladder Enlargement

Mirizzi syndrome is a rare cause of biliary obstruction in which the cystic duct is obstructed by a stone, which in combination wi

Multicystic Dysplastic Kidney

Multicystic dysplastic kidney (MCDK) The MCDK is generally the result of complete, early ureteric obstruction in utero before 1

Multiple Gated Acquisition Scan MUGA

Multiple-gated acquisition (MUGA) scan Definition : The multiple-gated acquisition (MUGA) scan, also called a cardiac blood po

Myelography Spinal Canal

Myelography Definition : Myelography is an x-ray examination of the spinal canal. A contrast agent is injected through a needl

Neonatal Hepatitis Biliary Atresia

Neonatal cholestasis and biliary atresia Neonatal hepatitis and biliary atresia are the most common causes of neonatal cholesta

Non-dilated Renal Obstruction

Non-dilated renal obstruction Obstruction may occasionally be present in the acute stages before renal dilatation is apparent

Obstructive Jaundice Biliary Duct Dilatation

OBSTRUCTIVE JAUNDICE AND BILIARY DUCT DILATATION Dilatation of all or part of the biliary tree is usually the result of proxi

Obstructive Uropathy Pcs Dilatation

PELVICALYCEAL SYSTEM DILATATION AND OBSTRUCTIVE UROPATHY Not all PCS dilatation, i.e. hydronephrosis, is pathological, or ind

Paediatric Abdomen Ultrasound

Ultrasound of the paediatric abdomen requires different techniques and skills from those used in the adult. Although there are a

Paediatric Pancreatic Abnormalities

PANCREAS - Normal appearances The acoustic characteristics of the pancreas vary with age. Pancreatic echogenicity is quite vari

Pancreas Transplantation Ultrasound

PANCREATIC TRANSPLANT In patients with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus with end-stage renal disease, simultaneous pancreat

Pancreas Ultrasound Techniques

PANCREAS - Ultrasound techniques Because the pancreas lies posterior to the stomach and duodenum, a variety of techniques must

Pancreatic Biopsy Cancer Research

pancreatic biopsy cancer research : The commonest reason for biopsy of the pancreas is in patients presenting with obstructiv

Pancreatic Carcinoma Clinical Radiology

pancreatic carcinoma clinical features and management Carcinoma of the pancreas is a major cause of cancer-related death. It

Pelvic Ultrasound

elvic ultrasound is a procedure in which high-frequency sound waves create images of the pelvic organs. The sound waves are projec

Percutaneous Liver Biopsy Procedure

percutaneous liver biopsy procedure : The most common reason for ultrasound-guided biopsy is for suspected metastatic disease

Percutaneous Treatment Of Hepatic Tumors

THE TREATMENT OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY HEPATIC TUMOURS BY PERCUTANEOUS METHODS In patients with colorectal carcinoma the pres

Portal Hypertension Diagnostic Radiology

Portal hypertension occurs when the pressure in the portal venous system is raised. This may happen as a result of chronic liver d

Positron Emission Tomography PET

Positron emission tomography (PET) is a non-invasive scanning technique that utilizes small amounts of radioactive positrons (posi

Primary Gallbladder Carcinoma

Primary gallbladder carcinoma Cancer of the gallbladder is usually associated with gallstones and a history of cholecystitis.

Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis Ultrasound

Primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) PSC is a chronic hepatobiliary disease in which the walls of the bile ducts become inflame

Renal Artery Stenosis Ultrasound

Renal artery stenosis (RAS) Stenosis of the renal artery is due to atrerosclerotic disease in the vast majority of patients,

Renal Cysts Cystic Disease Ultrasound

RENAL CYSTS AND CYSTIC DISEASE - Cysts The most common renal mass is a simple cyst which can be found in up to 50% of the popul

Renal Dilatation Diagnostic Radiology

Renal dilatation Hydronephrosis is frequently detected antenatally, although the cause may be difficult to demonstrate. Dilat

Renal Emergencies Ultrasound Scanning

RENAL TRACT EMERGENCIES Ultrasound is usually the firstline investigation in the assessment of acute loin pain, which in the

Renal Medical Imaging

Ultrasound is the first line of investigation in both antenatally detected abnormalities and in symptomatic children. ● T

Renal Tract Stones Ultrasound

RENAL TRACT CALCIFICATON Calcification within the kidney usually occurs in the form of stones. Smaller foci of calcium, which d

Renal Transplantation Complications

Postoperative complications Ultrasound has an essential role in assessing the transplant and makes a significant contribution t

Renal Transplantation Ultrasound

RENAL TRANSPLANTS Although there are a number of treatment choices for patients with renal failure including peritoneal and h

Renal Ultrasound Kidneys Renal Tract

THE NORMAL RENAL TRACT Ultrasound technique The right kidney is readily demonstrated through the right lobe of the liver.

Renal Variants Diagnostic Radiology

Duplex kidneys These occur in a spectrum of degrees, from two separate organs with separate collecting systems and duplex ure

Renal Vein Thrombosis Doppler

Renal vein thrombosis This can occur when chronic renal disease is already present or in cases of a coagulation disorder with i

Safety Of Diagnostic Ultrasound

SAFETY OF DIAGNOSTIC ULTRASOUND : Within the field of clinical diagnostic ultrasound, it is currently accepted that there is insuf

Skull X Rays

Skull x rays are performed to examine the nose, sinuses, and facial bones. These studies may also be referred to as sinus x rays.

Small Porcelain Gallbladder Imaging

THE CONTRACTED OR SMALL GALLBLADDER Postprandial The most likely cause is physiological and due to inadequate preparation. T

Spleen Ultrasound Technique

spleen ultrasound technique : The spleen normally lies posterior to the splenic flexure and stomach, making an anterior approach

Splenic Cysts Haemangioma Abscesses

BENIGN SPLENIC CONDITIONS Many benign focal lesions which occur in the spleen are of similar nature and ultrasound appearance

Splenomegaly Splenunculi Scanning

Splenomegaly Enlargement of the spleen is a highly non-specific sign associated with numerous conditions, the most common bei

Steatosis Fatty Infiltration Liver

DIFFUSE LIVER CONDITIONS Diseases which diffusely affect the liver may have very non-specific ultrasound appearances. Suspici

Ultrasound Guided Biopsy

ULTRASOUND-GUIDED BIOPSY: Percutaneous biopsy of organs, masses or focal visceral lesions is an integral part of the diagnostic

Ultrasound Guided Biopsy Complications

Complications of ultrasound-guided biopsy Postprocedure complications such as haematoma requiring blood transfusion and traum

Ultrasound Guided Biopsy Methods

ultrasound guided biopsy methods - Blind biopsy With this method a position on the skin surface is marked overlying the organ

Ultrasound Guided Drainage

ULTRASOUND-GUIDED DRAINAGE Many fluid collections are the result of surgical intervention and often cannot be differentiated

Upper Abdominal Ultrasound Scanning

upper abdominal ultrasound scanning technique is not something that can be learnt from a book. There is absolutely no substit

Urinary Tract Infections Imaging

RENAL TRACT INFLAMMATION AND INFECTION The most common urinary tract infections are bacterial in origin, with viral and funga

Use Of Doppler Ultrasound Scanning

The use of Doppler ultrasound is an integral part of the examination and should not be considered as a separate entity. Many patho

Vascular Abnormalities Of The Spleen

Vascular abnormalities of the spleen Splenic infarct Splenic infarction is most commonly associated with endocarditis, sic

Vesicoureteric Reflux Diagnosis

Vesicoureteric reflux Vesicoureteric reflux, the retrograde passage of urine from the bladder up the ureter and into the kidney

Wilms Tumour Ultrasound Diagnosis

Wilms’ tumour The most common paediatric renal malignancy, Wilms’ tumour usually presents before the age of 3 years