Acquired Renal Cystic Disease
Acquired renal cystic disease (ARCD) Cystic degenerative disease of the kidney with cysts visualized on CT scan. By definitio

Acute Pyelonephritis
Acute pyelonephritis A clinical diagnosis based on the presence of fever, flank pain, and tenderness, often with an elevated

Adult Polycystic Kidney Disease
Autosomal dominant (adult) polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) Definition Autosomal dominant inherited disorder leading to t

Anterior Urethral Injuries
Anterior urethral injuries : These injuries are uncommon. History and examination The patient usually presents with diffic

Artificial Urinary Sphincter
incontinence the artificial urinary sphincter The artificial urinary sphincter (AUS; AMS800â„¢) consists of an inflatable

Benign Renal Masses
Benign renal masses The most common (70%) are simple cysts, present in >50% of >50-year-olds. Rarely symptomatic, treat

Bladder Cancer
Bladder cancer: epidemiology and aetiology Bladder cancer is the second most common urological malignancy, accounting for 497

Bladder Cancer Presentation Staging
Bladder cancer: presentation Symptoms - The most common presenting symptom (85% of cases) is painless total haematuria. Th

Bladder Injuries
Bladder injuries Situations in which the bladder may be injured TURBT , cystoscopic bladder biopsy, TURP, cystolitholapaxy

Bladder Stones
Bladder stones - Composition Struvite (i.e. they are infection stones) or uric acid (in non-infected urine). Adults BR

Chronic Pyelonephritis
Chronic pyelonephritis This is a confusing term. It can be a radiological or pathological diagnosis or description. The appeara

Cystic Kidney Disease
Cystic kidney disease Congenital cystic kidney disease can be classified into genetic and non-genetic types. Genetic - Au

Cystic Renal Disease
Cystic renal disease: simple cysts Simple cysts are single or multiple renal  masses  ranging from a few to many ce

Epididymitis Orchitis
Epididymitis and orchitis This is an inflammatory condition of the epididymis, often involving the testis, and caused by bact

Erection Ejaculation
erection and ejaculation Innervation Autonomic: sympathetic nerves originating from T11-L2, and parasympathetic nerves ori

Extracorporeal Lithotripsy ESWL
Stone fragmentation techniques: extracorporeal lithotripsy (ESWL) The technique of focusing externally generated shock waves

Flexible Ureteroscopy Laser Treatment
Kidney stone treatment: flexible ureteroscopy and laser treatment The development of small-calibre ureteroscopes with active de

Fourniers Gangrene
Fournier's gangrene A necrotizing fascitis of the genitalia and perineum primarily affecting males and causing necrosis and sub

Genitourinary Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis (TB) of the genitourinary (GU) tract is caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. TB predominantly affects Asian popula

Hematuria Haematuria
Hematuria : the presence of blood in the urine. Macroscopic? (gross) hematuria: the patient has seen blood. Microscopic or

Hemospermia Haemospermia
Hemospermia - Definition : the presence of blood in the semen. Usually intermittent, benign, self-limiting and no cause ident

Hydronephrosis Hydroureteronephrosis
Hydronephrosis : Dilatation of the renal pelvis and calyces. When combined with dilatation of the ureters known as hydroureteronep

Impotence Evaluation
Impotence: evaluation Definition Impotence (also called erectile dysfunction or ED) describes the persistent inability to ac

Impotence Treatment
Impotence treatment Psychosexual therapy : Aims to understand and address underlying psychological issues, and provides info

Incontinence In The Elderly Patient
Incontinence in the elderly patient Prevalence UI increases markedly with advancing age affecting 10 - 20% of women and 7 -

Interstitial Cystitis
Interstitial cystitis (IC) is a refractory bladder disorder of unknown aetiology. Patients suffer chronic urinary frequency, noc

Kidney Stones
Kidney stones: epidemiology ~10% of Caucasian men will develop a kidney stone by the age of 70. Within 1 year of a calcium ox

Kidney Stones Medical Therapy
Kidney stones: medical therapy (dissolution therapy) Uric acid and cystine stones are potentially suitable for dissolution th

Kidney Stones Surgery
Kidney stones: open stone surgery Indications - Complex stone burden (projection of stone into multiple calyces, such that

Kidney Transplant Diagnosis Preparation
Diagnosis / Preparation Patients with chronic renal disease who need a transplant and do not have a living donor registered

Kidney Transplant Operation
Kidney transplant Definition Kidney transplantation is a surgical procedure to remove a healthy, functioning kidney from a

Lithotripsy Kidney Stones
Lithotripsy Definition Lithotripsy is the use of high-energy shock waves to fragment and disintegrate kidney stones. The s

Loin Flank Pain
Loin (flank) pain : This can present suddenly as severe pain in the flank reaching a peak within minutes or hours (acute loin pain

Lower Urinary Tract Infection
Lower urinary tract infection - Cystitis : infection and/or inflammation of the bladder. Presentation: frequent voiding of

Male Infertility
male infertility Definition of infertility Failure of conception after at least 12 months of unprotected intercourse. The ch

Malignant Ureteric Obstruction
Malignant ureteric obstruction Locally advanced prostate cancer, bladder or ureteric cancer may cause unilateral or bilateral

Medical Management Of BPH
Medical management of BPH: alpha blockers The rationale for  α  blocker therapy in BPH As described earlier,

Medullary Sponge Kidney
medullary sponge kidney (MSK) - Definition A cystic condition of the kidneys characterized by dilatation of the distal collecti

Mixed Incontinence
Mixed  incontinence - Definition Involuntary urinary leakage associated with urgency, and also with exertion, effort, snee

Needle Bladder Neck Suspension
Needle bladder neck suspension Definition Needle bladder neck suspension, also known as needle suspension, or paravaginal

Nephrectomy Nephroureterectomy
Nephrectomy and nephroureterectomy - Indications : - renal cell cancer - non-functioning kidney containing a staghorn calc

Nephrectomy Surgical Removal Of Kidney
Nephrectomy Definition : A nephrectomy is a surgical procedure for the removal of a kidney or section of a kidney. Pur

Nephrostomy Kidney
Nephrostomy Definition : A nephrostomy is a surgical procedure by which a tube, stent, or catheter is inserted through the ski

Neuroblastoma
Neuroblastoma : The most common extracranial solid tumour of childhood. 80% are diagnosed <4 years old. The tumour is of neural

Nocturia Nocturnal Polyuria
Nocturia and nocturnal polyuria : Nocturia  is common and bothersome (sleep disturbance). Prevalence of nocturia : men

Oligospermia Azoospermia
Oligospermia and azoospermia Oligospermia Defined as a sperm concentration of less than 20 million/ml of ejaculate. BR

Open Prostatectomy
Open prostatectomy Definition : Open prostatectomy is a procedure for removal of an enlarged prostate gland. Purpose

Open Prostatectomy Retropubic Suprapubic
open prostatectomy - description Open prostatectomy can be performed by either the retropubic or suprapubic approach. The pref

Orchidectomy
Orchidectomy - Indications : Two types radical orchidectomy and simple orchidectomy. Radical (inguinal) orchidectomy

Orchiectomy Surgical Removal Of Testes
orchiectomy surgical removal of testicles - diagnosis / preparation Diagnosis CANCER. The doctor may suspect that a pa

Orchiectomy Surgical Removal Of Testicles
Orchiectomy Definition : Orchiectomy is the surgical removal of one or both testicles, or testes, in the human male. It is als

Overactive Bladder
Overactive bladder - Definition Overactive bladder (OAB) is a symptom syndrome which includes urgency, with or without urge inc

Paraphimosis
Paraphimosis Definition and presentation This is where the foreskin is retracted from over the glans of the penis, becomes

Pelviureteric Junction Obstruction
Pelviureteric junction (PUJ) obstruction in adults Definition An obstruction of the proximal ureter at the junction with t

Penile Injuries
penile injuries - Amputation Blood loss can be severe; resuscitate the shocked patient and cross-match blood. Place the penis

Penile Prostheses
Penile prostheses are semi-rigid or inflatable devices that are implanted into penises to alleviate impotence. The penis is compos

Percutaneous Nephrolithotomy
Kidney stone treatment: percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PCNL) Technique PCNL is the removal of a kidney stone via a  tr

Percutaneous Nephrolithotomy PCNL
Percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PCNL) Complications of PCNL and their management Bleeding Some bleeding is inevitable, but

Percutaneous Nephrolithotomy Pcnl
percutaneous nephrolithotomy Definition : Percutaneous nephrolithotomy, or PCNL, is a procedure for removing medium-sized

Percutaneous Nephrolithotomy Results
percutaneous nephrolithotomy - diagnosis / preparation Diagnosis : Kidney stones may be discovered during a routine x ray stud

Peyronies Disease
Peyronie's disease - Definition A benign penile condition characterized by curvature of the penile shaft secondary to the forma

Post-prostatectomy Incontinence
Post-prostatectomy incontinence Incidence Slightly <1% after TURP, and 0.5% after open prostatectomy (OP) performed for b

Priapism Painful Erection
Priapism - Definition Prolonged and often painful erection in the absence of a sexual stimulus, lasting >4 - 6h, which predo

Prostate Cancer
Prostate cancer: epidemiology and aetiology Hormonal influence Growth of prostate cancer (PC), like benign prostatic epithel

Prostate Cancer Clinical Presentation
Prostate cancer: clinical presentation Since the widespread use of serum PSA testing, the majority of patients have non-metas

Prostate Cancer Grading
Prostate cancer grading Adenocarcinoma of the prostate is graded using the Gleason system. Microscopically, adenocarcinoma is g

Prostate Cancer Pathology
Prostate cancer pathology: adenocarcinoma By far the most common (>95%) prostatic malignancy is adenocarcinoma carcinoma of

Prostate Cancer Staging
Prostate cancer staging Tumour staging uses the TNM classification. As with all cancer, prostate cancer staging may be consider

Prostate Cancer Treatment
prostate cancer treatment: hormone therapy I Metastatic disease is the cause of nearly all prostate cancer-related death. Cur

Prostatic Specific Antigen PSA
Prostatic specific antigen (PSA) PSA is a 34KD glycoprotein enzyme produced by the columnar acinar and ductal prostatic epithel

Prostatitis Prostate Inflammation
Prostatitis Definition : Infection and/or inflammation of the prostate. Epidemiology : Overall prevalence in men is 5%. Ag

PSA And Prostate Cancer
PSA and prostate cancer Until the development of commercial serum PSA assays in the late 1980s, the only serum marker for prost

Pyeloplasty Reflux Obstruction
Pyeloplasty - Indications : PUJ obstruction Anaesthesia : General Post-operative care A JJ stent, bladder c

Radical Cystectomy Partial Cystectomy
Partial cystectomy - Indications : Primary, solitary bladder tumours at a site that allows 2cm of normal tissue around it to be

Radical External Beam Radiotherapy
Management of localized prostate cancer: radical external beam radiotherapy (EBRT) Since the early 1980s advances in radiothe

Radical Prostatectomy
Radical prostatectomy - Indications : - Localized prostate cancer Anaesthesia : General or regional Post-opera

Radical Prostatectomy
Radical (total) prostatectomy (RP) is excision of the entire prostate, including the prostatic urethra, with the seminal vesicle

Recurrent Urinary Tract Infection
Recurrent urinary tract infection Recurrent UTI is defined as >2 infections in 6 months, or 3 within 12 months. It may be du

Renal Cell Carcinoma
Renal cell carcinoma: epidemiology and aetiology Renal cell carcinoma also known as hypernephroma (since it was erroneously bel

Renal Cell Carcinoma Surgical Treatment
Renal cell carcinoma: surgical treatment I Surgery is the mainstay of treatment for RCC. Increases in diagnosis of smaller ea

Renal Duplications
Renal duplications Definitions A duplex kidney has an upper pole and a lower pole, each with its own separate pelvicalycea

Renal Masses Radiological Assessment
Radiological assessment of renal masses Abdominal ultrasound The first-line investigation for a patient with loin pain or

Renal Trauma
Renal trauma: classification, mechanism, grading Classification Two categories: blunt and penetrating. Proportion of all r

Renal Trauma Treatment
Renal trauma: treatment Conservative (non-operative) management Most blunt (95%) and many penetrating renal injuries (50%

Retrograde Ejaculation
Retrograde ejaculation Definition Failure of adequate bladder neck contraction resulting in the propulsion of sperm back int

Retroperitoneal Fibrosis
Retroperitoneal fibrosis (RPF) was first clearly described by the French urologist, Albarran, at the beginning of the 20th centu

Retropubic Suspension
Retropubic suspension refers to the surgical procedures used to correct incontinence by supporting and stabilizing the bladder and

Retropubic Suspension Surgery
There are a variety of retropubic suspension surgeries available to treat stress incontinence. The variations differ by the types

Sacral Nerve Stimulation
Sacral nerve stimulation, also known as sacral neuromodulation, is a procedure in which the sacral nerve at the base of the spine

Scrotal Pain
Scrotal pain : - Pathology within the scrotum Torsion of the testicles Torsion of testicular appendages Epididymo-orc

Sling Procedure
The sling procedure, or suburethral sling procedure, refers to a particular kind of surgery using ancillary material to aid in clo

Sling Procedure 2
Description of sling procedure : Anti-incontinence surgery is used to address the failure of two parts of female urinary cont

Suprapubic Catheterization
suprapubic catheterization - Indications Failed urethral catheterization in urinary retention; preferred site for long-term cat

Testicular Cancer
Testicular cancer: epidemiology and aetiology Incidence and mortality Primary testicular cancer (TC) is the most common soli

Testicular Cancer Staging
Testicular cancer: serum markers Germ cell tumours may express and secrete into the bloodstream relatively specific and readi

Testicular Injuries
Testicular injuries : Testicular injuries are uncommon. Mechanisms Blunt or penetrating. Most in civilian practice are blu

Testis Testicular Appendages Torsion
Torsion of the testis and testicular appendages Definition A testicular torsion is a twist of the spermatic cord resulting

Ureteric Injuries
Ureteric injuries: mechanisms and diagnosis Types, causes, and mechanisms - External (rare blunt (e.g. high speed road tra

Ureteric Injuries Management
Ureteric injuries: management When to repair the ureteric injury Generally, the best time to repair the ureter is as soon

Ureteric Stones
Ureteric stones: presentation Ureteric stones usually present with sudden onset of severe flank pain which is colicky (waves

Ureteric Stones Radiological Imaging
Ureteric stones: diagnostic radiological imaging The intravenous urogram (IVU), for many years the mainstay of imaging in pat

Urethral Catheterization
urethral catheterization - Indications Relief of urinary retention; prevention of urinary retention a period of post-operative

Urethral Stricture Disease
Urethral stricture disease A urethral stricture is an area of narrowing in the calibre of the urethra due to formation of sca

Urinary Incontinence
Urinary incontinence - Definitions : Urinary incontinence (UI): the complaint of any involuntary leakage of urine. Stress ur

Urinary Incontinence
Evaluation History Enquire about LUTS (storage or voiding symptoms); triggers for incontinence (cough, sneezing, exercise, p

Urinary Incontinence Classification
Urinary incontinence - Definition Urinary incontinence (UI) is the complaint of any involuntary leakage of urine.1 It results f

Urinary Incontinence Injection Treatment
urinary incontinence injection treatment: The injection of bulking materials into the bladder neck and periurethral muscles is use

Urinary Incontinence Pubovaginal Slings
urinary incontinence pubovaginal slings Indications Sling procedures are mainly used for female stress incontinence associat

Urinary Incontinence Retropubic Suspension
urinary incontinence retropubic suspension Retropubic suspension procedures are used to treat female stress incontinence caus

Urinary Tract Computed Tomography
urinary tract Computed tomography : Widely used for investigation of urological symptoms and disease. It can detect very smal

Urinary Tract Infection
Urinary tract infection A diagnosis of urinary tract infection (UTI) used to be based on finding >105 bacteria/ml of urine,

Urinary Tract Obstruction
Pathophysiology of urinary tract obstruction Effects of obstruction on renal blood flow and ureteric pressure Acute unilat

Urinary Tract Plain Radiography
Uses of plain abdominal radiography - urinary tract plain radiography : - For detection of stones and determination of the

Urinary Tract Ultrasound
urinary tract ultrasound - /B Renal : - Assessment of haematuria - Determination of nature of renal masses can different

Urine Cytology
Urine cytology : - Urine collection for cytology Exfoliated cells lying in urine which has been in the bladder for several ho

Urine Examination
Urine examination : Dipstick testing :Analysis for pH, blood, protein, glucose, and white cells can be done with dipstick testi

Urine Microscopy
Urine microscopy : Red blood cell morphology : Determined by phase-contrast microscopy. RBCs derived from the glomerulus are d

Urine Storage Micturition Physiology
The physiology of urine storage and micturition Urine storage During bladder filling, bladder pressure remains low despite

Varicocele Spermatic Cord
Varicocele - Definition Dilatation of the veins of the pampiniform plexus of the spermatic cord. Prevalence Found in

Vasectomy Birth Control
Vasectomy : This is the removal of a section of the vas deferens from each side with the aim of achieving infertility. Indi

Vesicoureteric Reflux In Adults
Vesicoureteric reflux (VUR) in adults VUR is the retrograde flow of urine from the bladder into the upper urinary tract with

Vesicovaginal Fistula
Vesicovaginal fistula (VVF) Fistula: an abnormal communication between two epithelial surfaces, in the case of a VVF between

Wilms Tumour
Wilms' tumour : This is a rare childhood tumour, affecting 1 in 10,000 children. It represents 80% of all genitourinary tumours